Prior to the 19th century, the region now known as Liberia was inhabited by tribes originating from the Sudan. These tribes fall into three main groupings: the Kru group, who have a seafaring tradition; the Mande-speaking group, who have a rich and influential reservoir of tribal traditions; and a third grouping with a farming tradition. Modern Liberia came into existence as a result of negotiations conducted between local rulers and the representatives of settlers from the USA, mostly freed black slaves who were encouraged to resettle in the lands of their forebears and were aided by various philanthropic
organizations in the USA. They controlled Liberia almost exclusively for more than 100 years from the early 19th century.
For many years, the colonial powers refused to recognize the new state, and it was not until 1847 that the country was formally able to proclaim itself an independent republic – the first in Africa. This state of affairs did not, unfortunately, produce even the limited material and commercial benefits that colonialism conferred on other parts of the continent, and the settlers, hampered largely by a lack of capital and foreign investment, were never able to develop the kind of economic base that would make them as independent in practice as they were in name.
Large sections of the country’s territory were ceded to the colonies of Britain and France during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Since 1926, the date of the Firestone Concession, Liberia has cultivated close ties with the USA. The aim of government policy was to develop a national consciousness in a unified society whose members can no longer trace their origins. Traditional cultural values, however, are strong, being transmitted mainly through powerful secret societies. Urban culture is a mixture of 19th-century American, traditional African and contemporary US and Western European customs and values. Liberia was ruled by elected civilian governments until a right-wing military coup in 1980, during which President William Tolbert was assassinated.
A People’s Redemption Council, led by Master-Sergeant Samuel Doe, then took power. In January 1986, Doe became President. Doe proved to be solidly pro-Western in both domestic and foreign policy, though his regime was not wholly stable (nor, indeed, was Doe). A number of coup attempts and a worsening economic situation led the Doe government to adopt increasingly repressive measures to maintain its position. Late in 1989, severe communal violence broke out after a failed coup attempt. As the fighting escalated into civil war, three distinct factions became engaged in a national power-struggle: forces loyal to Doe, and two mutually opposed rebel groups led by Charles Taylor and Prince Yormie Johnson. Taylor, a former Doe aide, and Johnson had started their campaign under the same banner, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL).
Tribal affiliations played a key role in the split between the Krahn, to which Doe and most of his adherents belonged, and the Gio and Mano people, who formed the bulk of the rebel forces. Fighting between Doe’s troops and the Taylor/Johnson axis began at the end of 1989. In September 1990, Doe was formally deposed and then shot and killed under uncertain circumstances. ECOWAS (the Economic Community of West African States) led the search for an elusive political settlement. Johnson assumed the presidency temporarily during September, after which it passed through several hands, settling for a time in those of Amos Sawyer, who managed to pacify some parts of the country.
Sawyer was backed by a Nigerian-led peacekeeping force, known as ECOMOG (ECOWAS Monitoring Group). Meanwhile Taylor and his NPFL guerrillas – mostly from the Gio and Mano peoples who are historic rivals of the Krahn – kept up the fight. To complicate matters further, at least three new guerrilla formations appeared as both Taylor’s NPFL and its main opponents split into factions. A peace accord signed in the Beninois capital, Cotonou, in the spring of 1994 was quickly forgotten.
Then, in August 1995, to the amazement of the many observers who had all but given up on Africa’s oldest republic, six years of civil war came to a sudden end as the main factions signed an agreement largely brokered by Ghanaian President Gerry Rawlings. At the beginning of September, Liberia’s three principal warlords – Taylor, George Boley and Alhaji Kromah – made theatrical entrances into Monrovia. A six-strong ruling council took control of the country preparatory to elections originally scheduled for 1996.
Simultaneous elections for the presidency and the national assembly did finally take place in July 1997. The overwhelming winner was Taylor and his restyled political vehicle, the National Patriotic Party. Assisted by widespread intimidation, Taylor took 75 per cent of the presidential poll (no other candidate won more than 10 per cent) while the NPP won a similar proportion of seats in both parliamentary chambers. The next two years were relatively quiet but in 1999, opponents of Taylor moved their center of operations to Lofa province, in the north near the Guinea border. By the spring of 2001 they were posing a major threat to the Taylor government. Liberia was now engaged in a complex three-way conflict with Sierra Leone and the Guinea Republic. By the beginning of 2002, both of these countries were supporting the latest addition to the lexicon of Liberian guerrilla outfits – Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), while Taylor was supporting various opposition factions in both countries. By supporting Sierra Leonean rebels, Taylor also drew the enmity of the British and Americans (see
Sierra Leone section).
Despite some setbacks, by mid-2003 LURD controlled the northern third of the country and was threatening the capital. Yet another group, the Ivoirian-backed MODEL, held a block of territory in the south. By the beginning of August, after a two-month siege, LURD had overrun parts of Monrovia. Taylor agreed to exile in Nigeria as Nigerian peacekeepers, backed by an American naval and marine contingent, moved in. Taylor’s former vice-president Moses Blah took control temporarily. In October, he handed over to Liberia’s Charles Gyude Bryant, a businessman and politician who is leading an interim administration.
First round presidential elections in October 2005 resulted in a run-off between ex-footballer George Weah and Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, a former World Bank economist. While Weah proved hugely popular, particularly with the young, his opponents argued Johnson-Sirleaf was better qualified for the job. For many, however, Weah's attraction lay in the fact he represented success in a country ruined by decades of war and he was not linked to the politics of the past. The second round of elections took place on 8 November 2005. Johnson-Sirleaf claimed victory, winning 59 per cent of the vote, making her the first woman president of Liberia and indeed of any African country. However, Weah alleged electoral fraud, despite international observers declaring the election to be free and fair. With Weah still threatening to take his claims to the Supreme Court if no evidence of fraud was found, Johnson-Sirleaf was declared president on 23 November.
GovernmentLiberia has been ruled by a transitional government since 2003, but this is about to change following the election of Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf as president in November 2005. The previous Constitution – which is likely to be the model for any future constitution – dates from 1995. It allows for a bicameral legislature comprising a 26-strong Senate, whose members are directly elected for nine-year terms in two-seat constituencies, and a House of Representatives with 64 members directly elected to serve six-year terms in single-seat constituencies. Executive power is vested in the president, who is also elected for a six-year term of office, assisted by an appointed cabinet of ministers.
EconomyThe civil war caused severe damage to the economy and, following the peace settlement, reconstruction has been the highest priority as the infrastructure is in ruins. In 2003, unemployment was at 85% and inflation at 15%. Liberia’s annual growth was 7.8% in 2006. Around 70% of the population work the land, producing rice and cassava as staple foods and palm oil, coffee and cocoa as cash crops. The country’s principal export commodities are iron ore and rubber. Some gold and diamonds are also mined.
The manufacturing industry (still operating far below capacity) produces cement and other building materials, chemicals, drinks and tobacco and consumer products. Liberia operates one of the longest established open registry (flag of convenience) merchant shipping fleets. This continues to be an essential source of foreign exchange and government revenue.
Liberia relies heavily on international aid and financial support. It is a member of the West African trading bloc ECOWAS. The USA is Liberia’s largest trading partner.
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