Turkmenistan History

The territory of what is now Turkmenistan provided the bedrock for many of the most powerful empires of their age. The Parthians, the Seljuks and the Khans of Khoresm all based their empires at various points on the edge of the Kara-Kum Desert, while Alexander the Great conquered the region during his epic campaign of the fourth century BC. The influence of Islam dates from the seventh century AD, when the region was under Arab control. Modern-day Turkmen are descended from tribes that migrated to the area in the 10th century from the northeast. Around 300 years later, Genghis Khan arrived from the same direction and incorporated Turkmenistan into his expanding empire. From the 15th century, the area was under Persian domination until the Russian move into Central Asia at the end of the 19th century. Turkmenistan fell into the British sphere of influence but the Bolsheviks took control of the region in 1920 and incorporated Turkmenistan as a union republic in 1925.

Turkmenistan’s ability to embrace the reforms made possible by glasnost and independence were hampered by its backward economy and, as a result, it retains many more of the trappings of the old system than other post-Soviet republics. There have, however, been significant changes – such as the introduction of a new currency – and the framework for further economic change has been put in place. By contrast, politics has changed little since the Soviet era. The current president is Saparmyrat Niyazov, who has acquired the honorific title of Türkmenbashy – leader of all Turkmen – which conveys something of a spiritual, as well as political, leader. He was elected (as the sole candidate) as president in 1990, having been leader of the Turkmenistan Communist Party since 1985 and Chairman of the Supreme Soviet from 1990. In a referendum in 1994, he was confirmed as president.

In 1993, the Majlis (see Government) approved a motion to extend Niyazov's term of office beyond 1997 until 2002. Then, in 1999, it decided to make him president for life. ‘Türkmenbashy’ has evolved a cult of personality to rival any in the world – it has reportedly extended to renaming calendar months in honor of him and assorted relatives. Opposition has been quickly and brutally suppressed, especially in the wake of a reported assassination attempt against Niyazov in late 2002. This peculiar and unpleasant regime is tolerated by the international community for two main reasons – the country’s strategic position and its enormous (and, as yet, largely undeveloped) reserves of oil, gas and precious metals.

Abroad, Turkmenistan has forged strong economic and political links with Iran and Turkey, within the framework of what the government calls ‘permanent neutrality’. The country also retains close links with the Russian Federation, although there have been some recent difficulties over the current dual nationality status of ethnic Russians living in the country. Also, since the US-led war against the Taleban regime in Afghanistan, its strategic position – like that of neighboring Tajikistan – has been immeasurably strengthened, as it has become a staging post for materiel and humanitarian aid in Central Asia. For their part, the Turkmens are looking to a new stable Afghanistan as a possible route for the export of their oil and gas deposits.

Government
Under the terms of the constitution adopted in 1993, the Turkmen government is headed by an executive president, who is also Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers carries out the day-to-day running of the country. The supreme legislative body is the 50-member Majlis, which is directly elected for five years. The Majlis deputies also sit on the Khalk Maslakhaly (literally, People’s Council), which includes 60 other elected representatives, members of the Council of Ministers and is chaired by the president.

Economy
Although 90% of the land is occupied by the Kara-Kum desert, agriculture is important to the Turkmen economy. Substantial quantities of cotton (the country is the world’s 10th-largest producer) are also produced under ecologically ruinous schemes established during the Soviet era. Grain, fruit and vegetables are widely grown and livestock breeding is an important source of employment.

The other mainstay of the economy and its best prospect for the future is an abundance of oil and natural gas deposits, the scale of which rivals anything in the Persian and Mexican Gulfs. New pipelines are planned to supplement the sole existing one, which transports the products via Russia. Other commercially viable reserves include bromine, iodine salts and various other minerals.

Most of Turkmenistan’s industry is devoted to processing the country’s principal raw materials: textiles are a key export industry and much of the extracted oil is refined within the country. Oil and gas account for 85% of Turkmenistan’s export income (under long-term contracts, 80% of the gas goes to the Ukraine while 60% of the oil is bought by Italy).

As one of the poorest republics of the former Soviet Union, Turkmenistan suffered considerable economic disruption and hardship after its demise in 1991 (GDP declined by 10% per year between 1993 and 1998); the increasing inability of many of its former trade partners to pay for its products has also caused serious difficulties. The government responded by seeking out new markets.

In 1992, Turkmenistan joined the IMF and the World Bank, then the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (as a ’Country of Operation’) and the Islamic Development Bank. The following year a new national currency, the Manat, was introduced.

In 1996, the government introduced an economic reform program aimed at controlling persistent inflation and promoting foreign investment, especially in the oil and gas sector. This has met with some success; inflation is now 10.7% (2005), while annual GDP growth is 9.6% (2005).

The government has also concentrated resources in developing Turkmenistan’s previously poor infrastructure, especially the road network. Some aspects of the reform program have been delayed, including land reform in which the major role was to be assumed by the private sector.

Turkmenistan is a member of the Economic Co-operation Organization, which brings together the former republics of the southern Soviet Union with Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece and Turkey.


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