There are traces of American-Indian civilizations in Brazil, dating at least from 5000BC, or perhaps several millennia prior to that. The first European expedition, led by the Portuguese Admiral Pedro Alvares Cabral, reached Brazil in 1500, to discover a population numbering several millions (possibly up to five million), divided among hundreds of tribes and language groups. The arrival of Europeans, followed by African slaves, brought diseases that devastated the indigenous population during the early years of colonization. The Portuguese colonial economy was initially based on slavery and exploitation
of primary products but, under the influence of Jesuit missionaries, its effects were somewhat moderated.
By the late 16th and early 17th centuries, the Portuguese were more concerned about resisting incursions by rival colonial powers, especially the French and Dutch. The early settlements, located in what is now the province of Bahia, were expanded. The Napoleonic wars, during which Portugal was invaded by French forces in 1807, triggered the growth of modern Brazil. Threatened by invading French forces, the Portuguese government and royal family decamped to Brazil under British protection in 1807. On arrival, they reconstructed the instruments of modern government in their new location of Rio de Janeiro. In 1821, King Joao returned to Lisbon, leaving his son, Dom Pedro, as regent. Within a year, Dom Pedro led a successful campaign for independence (backed by the British), which Lisbon was forced to accept.
The imperial system created by Dom Pedro lasted until 1889, when it was overthrown and replaced by a republic. The struggle for control between central government and the most powerful regions (notably São Paolo, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul) has been a major characteristic of Brazilian politics since the creation of the republic. It has often led to the intervention of the army, which, apart from the Catholic Church, is the only truly national institution. Indeed, it was the army – in the form of forces led by Field Marshal da Fonseca – that brought the imperial regime to an end.
A sense of national identity gradually developed during the early 20th century, while the main regional potentates ensured stability by distributing national posts among themselves. Meanwhile an industrial economy was developing rapidly, bringing new social and political problems that proved difficult to resolve. The career of Getulio Vargas, who dominated Brazilian politics between 1930 and 1954, governing the country twice as popularly elected president and twice as dictator, reflects something of the instability of that era. The 1950s and early 1960s saw rapid economic growth and the evolution of Brazilian society. This ended following the accession of the left-winger Joao Goulart in 1960. In 1964, with the connivance and assistance (according to recently discovered documents) of the United States of America, the army decided to take full control, overthrowing Goulart and heralding two decades of military rule.
Pressure for a return to civilian rule gathered momentum during the early 1980s, particularly after the military ceded power in neighboring Argentina in 1983. The army consented and, at the election held in January 1985, Tancredo Neves, a respected former prime minister and latterly a state governor, became Brazil’s first civilian president for 21 years. Neves died before he was able to take office and was replaced by the Deputy President-Designate José Sarney. Sarney successfully guided the country through the tricky period of transition between military and civilian rule, which many South American countries were then negotiating. Sarney remained in power until 1989, when he was defeated at national elections by the conservative Fernando Collor de Mello.
The end of military rule also presented the opportunity for a major public debate about the future of Brazil’s vast Amazonian rainforests, which were then being indiscriminately destroyed by loggers and ranchers. The scale of the destruction was such that it attracted intense international interest. It was appropriate, therefore, that in June 1992, Rio de Janeiro should host the first global summit on environmental issues – the ‘Earth Summit’. A former economy minister, Fernando Enrique Cardoso, took over as president in 1994. After an inauspicious start, Cardoso gradually established credibility sufficient enough to win him a second term at the October 1998 election. His principal opponent, as in 1994, was Luis Inacio da Silva (known as ‘Lula’), a left-winger with roots in the trades union movement and a substantial, often fanatical, personal following among poor Brazilians. The two rivals represent the
Partido da Social Democracia Brasileiro (PSDB) and the
Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT) respectively.
Like its predecessors, Cardoso’s government did little to seriously tackle the country’s diseased political system or the huge inequalities that disfigure Brazilian society. Much of his second term was taken up with economic fire fighting, as the Brazilian currency suffered a major collapse through structural economic weaknesses and adverse events in Asia and elsewhere (see
Economy). It was not until 2001 that limited measures were taken to address the ethnic divisions between and relative positions of the Brazilian Indian, black and white populations. By the next scheduled elections in October 2002, the electorate had had enough. The
Partido dos Trabalhadores, still led by ‘Lula’, had dropped some of the more radical elements of their platform to secure wider appeal. The strategy proved successful and Luis Inacio da Silva finally secured the presidency. His party, meanwhile, became the single largest in the new national assembly.
The Lula government faces a difficult balancing act. It has committed itself to a major program of social and economic reform but a reminder of the power of international capital came shortly before the election when, amid fears of a Lula victory, market activity brought the Brazilian economy to the brink of collapse. Lula has managed to keep both popular sentiment and the international markets more or less on track. He has implemented pension reforms as well as bringing about an increase in the minimum wage. In 2005, however, his party faced claims of corruption and he was forced to apologise on television, saying he knew nothing of the supposed corruption.
GovernmentThe present constitution was promulgated in 1988. Legislative power rests with the bicameral
Congresso Nacional (National Congress). The Lower House has 513 seats and is elected by proportional representation for four years; members of the 81-strong Senate serve eight-year terms. The president, who holds executive power and is elected every four years, appoints and leads a Cabinet of Ministers.
EconomyDespite widespread poverty, Brazil has the world’s 10th-largest economy. Agriculture remains the largest sector in terms of employment and Brazil is the world’s second-largest exporter of agricultural products, principally coffee, sugar and soya beans. There is also a substantial industrial sector, concentrated in machinery, electrical goods, construction materials, rubber and chemicals, and vehicle production.
The country also possesses large mineral reserves including iron ore - of which Brazil is the world’s largest exporter. Plans to develop Brazil’s potentially vast oil and gas resources will serve to reduce the country’s large current energy import bill but face opposition on environmental grounds.
After difficulties throughout the 1980s, as the economy adjusted to new liberal economic policies, Brazil recorded a fairly strong economic performance during most of the 1990s. Industrial efficiency and financial management were improved while the government bolstered its coffers through privatization. However, little of this money was directed towards investment and Brazil has suffered the consequences of years of under-investment in infrastructure and public services.
The Lula government, which took office with a series of radical social programs at the beginning of 2003, was soon forced to make budget cuts. The economy has recorded slow growth (around 2%) in recent years, but the country is showing signs of improvement. Inflation and unemployment are under control and relatively low, both at below 10%.
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